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Four-dimensional printing enables dynamic, time-dependent, and stimulus-responsive behavior of self-reconfiguring shape, properties, and functions of printed products. Despite the advances, a significant knowledge gap remains on the vital characteristics of 4D printed products. This review critically assesses five major classes of smart materials with benchmarking of functional performance. Six distinct stimulus-response mechanismswere reviewed systematically and five 3D printing technologieswere benchmarked for 4D printing effectiveness. Interdisciplinary applications were rigorously reviewed with technology readiness . This review integrates sustainability metrics, AI-enabled design, digital twins, and regulatory aspects into a multidisciplinary roadmap. This assessment guides sustainable, industrially viable 4D printing towards industrialization.
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Thakur et al. (2026) studied this question.
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