Harnessing the placebo effect: A practical review of mechanisms and clinical applications

The placebo effect is a powerful psychobiological phenomenon that significantly influences clinical outcomes in a wide range of medical conditions. Conversely, the nocebo effect, whereby negative expectations worsen symptoms or generate adverse effects, can undermine treatment efficacy, increase symptom burden, and reduce medication adherence. This review examines the historical evolution, neurobiological underpinnings, and key determinants of the placebo and nocebo responses. Practical strategies are outlined to ethically harness placebo effects and minimize nocebo responses in clinical practice.