Exploring the role of soil amendments and agronomic practices in enhancing Gossypium hirsutum L. resilience to climate change: a path forward for sustainable cotton farming

Cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum L.) is an important fiber crop, but its yield and overall fiber quality are constrained by biotic and abiotic factors. Under certain conditions, moderate rises in temperature and elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels may enhance cotton growth and productivity. However, these benefits are often constrained by heat and water stress. This review critically synthesizes the research on the contribution of soil amendments and agronomic practices to improving soil structure, nutrient retention, rhizosphere functionality, and plant stress resilience in cotton systems. Organic, mineral, and microbial amendments, including biochar formulations, can improve soil properties and microbial activity, especially under arid and saline conditions. Nevertheless, their effectiveness is highly context-dependent. Cotton exhibits physiological plasticity through changes in rooting patterns, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidant defense mechanisms, but its reproductive system is highly sensitive to heat stress. Phenological evidence suggests that warming accelerates crop development and increases the risk of heat and water stress during sensitive growth stages. Based on this synthesis, we propose the Climate-resilient cotton production model (CR-CPM), which conceptualizes cotton resilience as a threshold-based outcome emerging from interactions among soil, microbial, physiological, phenological, and management processes, where physiological thresholds determine the transition from effective management to system-level stress under extreme conditions. This framework emphasizes the need for integrated, site-specific strategies to sustain cotton productivity and soil health under increasing climatic stress.