Spatiotemporal patterns of human-leopard (Panthera pardus melas) conflicts on Java Island, Indonesia

Gunawan H, Semiadi G, Atmoko T, Kuswanda W, Sultan K, Purwoko A. 2026. Spatiotemporal patterns of human-leopard (Panthera pardus melas) conflicts on Java Island, Indonesia. Asian J Ethnobiol 9 (2): y090213. https://doi.org/10.13057/asianjethnobiol/y090213. The Javan leopard is at risk of extinction due to habitat loss, fragmentation, and conflict with humans. Human-wildlife conflict arises when the needs of wildlife and humans coincide, resulting in mutual losses. Conflicts between humans and leopards (Panthera pardus melas) on Java Island, Indonesia, between 1993 and June 2024 are examined in this study. It provides a thorough overview of the situation by examining the locations of these conflicts, when they often occur throughout the year, and how they are related to deforestation. The data were collected from a survey and secondary data from Natural Resources Conservation Agencies, safari parks, zoos, wildlife rehabilitation centers, studbook keepers, national mass media, and alongside semi-structured interviews with 132 informants to capture the ethnozoological dimensions and symbolic narratives surrounding these interactions. During the study period, 223 documented conflict records were noted across 30 districts on Java Island. The most frequent issue was livestock depredation, making up 45.3% of conflicts. West Java was particularly affected, accounting for 70.9% of these incidents, with Ciamis being the most impacted district. Interestingly, conflicts surged after 2010, reaching a peak of 23 cases in 2020. While statistical analysis showed no clear seasonal pattern, conflicts occurred year-round, mostly during both the wet (57.0%) and dry (43.0%) seasons. The study discovered that biological factors were important, particularly the territorial behavior of young male leopards (76.9% of the males included). Additionally, deforestation was positively correlated with conflict (r = 0.708), suggesting that conflict increases with forest loss. These findings emphasize the importance of prey and habitat conservation, livestock protection, and community involvement. However, reliance on historical records and the lack of direct ecological measurements limit the study. Future research should integrate standardized monitoring, GPS telemetry, prey assessment, connectivity analysis, and spatial modeling to better identify conflict drivers and guide conservation.