Physical modeling of wave overtopping and coastal flooding: a review of measurement techniques

The accurate assessment and prediction of coastal flooding and wave overtopping are essential for improving the resilience of coastal infrastructures and communities in the face of climate change and urbanization of seafronts. This paper presents a comprehensive review of physical modeling approaches used in the study of overtopping discharges and coastal flooding analysis, highlighting experimental techniques, measurement tools, associated challenges, and sources of uncertainty. The review examines recent literature on coastal physical modeling, including hybrid approaches that integrate numerical simulations. Significant advances have been made in experimental instrumentation, including non-intrusive video analysis, wave gauges, and augmented reality systems, improving the accuracy and applicability of physical models. Video-based methods and machine learning applications have also enhanced the monitoring of dynamic flooding and overtopping processes. Despite these advances, model uncertainty, especially in measuring mean overtopping discharges and representing small-scale urban features, remains a major limitation. This review highlights the importance of combining physical realism with computational modeling to reduce uncertainty and improve predictive capability. Future research should prioritize uncertainty quantification, compound flood scenarios, and improved integration of flood drivers to support more informed coastal risk management strategies.