Occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and unauthorised synthetic dyes in bulk paprika from two provinces of Türkiye: Dietary exposure and health risk assessment

Paprika is susceptible to contamination by naturally occurring mycotoxins and economically motivated adulteration with illegal synthetic dyes, posing potential food safety concerns. This study investigated the occurrence of four aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), and 13 unauthorised synthetic dyes in 105 unbranded bulk paprika samples collected from retail spice shops in Türkiye using validated HPLC-FLD and LC-MS/MS methods. AFB 1 was the predominant mycotoxin, detected in 70.5% of samples, whereas OTA occurred in 26.7%. Regulatory exceedances for AFB 1 were limited, and no sample exceeded the European Union maximum level for OTA. Among the prohibited dyes analysed, Sudan I and Sudan IV were detected in 5.7% and 1% of samples, respectively. Under the upper-bound scenario, deterministic margin of exposure (MOE) values were 38,531 for AFB 1 and 1,578,678 for OTA. The probabilistic assessment yielded 5th percentile MOE values of 10,535 and 377,691 for AFB 1 and OTA, respectively. All reported MOE values exceeding the reference threshold of 10,000. These findings suggest a low level of public health concern for dietary exposure to AFs and OTA through paprika consumption, while highlighting the need for continued monitoring of mycotoxins and illegal dyes to ensure food safety and product authenticity.