Current and emerging threats to honey bee health: a One Health perspective on antibiotic pollution

Pollinators play a critical role in global food production and ecosystem health, yet high losses of essential honey bee colonies have been reported worldwide. Climate change, habitat loss, parasites, pesticides, and poor nutrition are established pollinator threats, whereas environmental antibiotic pollution remains poorly understood. Antibiotic exposure may independently affect bees or interact with these stressors, potentially compounding adverse health effects. Synthetic antibiotic residues and resistance genes enter the environment through the fertilization of soils with antibiotic-containing animal manure, animal wastewater discharge, and airborne antibiotic contamination landing directly on flowers and crops. While the effects of direct antibiotic exposure on honey bees have been studied, the consequences of indirect environmental exposure remain largely unknown. Foraging bees may encounter antibiotic contaminants in the environment, potentially disrupting their gut microbiome, altering behavior and physiology, and increasing susceptibility to pathogens. Contamination of honey bees and their products with antibiotics serve not only as indicators of environmental antibiotic resistance but also as a practical One Health model linking human, animal, and environmental health. Studying honey bee responses to agricultural contaminants provides insight into how antibiotic resistance and environmental stressors can move across ecosystems, affecting both pollinators and the broader public. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the multifactor threats to honey bees and their mitigation strategies, emphasizing the influence of animal production and antibiotic pollution on honey bee health. We highlight knowledge gaps in understanding the transfer of antibiotic resistance from agricultural environments to honey bees to enhance pollinator health and promote long-term ecological resilience.