Buying your way to the top: influencer fraud and the underground trade of social media and streaming metrics

4 Various commodities are sold on darknet marketplaces (DNMs). An underexplored area of research is the sale of engagement (e.g., likes, comments, posts, followers, etc.) and quality metrics (e.g., ratings, reviews, and comments) on DNMs for social media and streaming platforms. Depending on the jurisdiction, circumstances of the case, and intent of the person purchasing these metrics, this practice may constitute a form of cyber-enabled fraud against platforms, businesses, and/or consumers, and/or an unfair or deceptive trade practice. Because little is known about the sale of these metrics on DNMs, this study, through a content analysis of 1235 product listings across multiple DNMs, identifies the types of metrics sold on DNMs, the costs of these metrics, the platforms targeted in the listings (e.g., Instagram, TikTok, Telegram, Twitch, etc.), and the ways these metrics can be used to commit influencer fraud. The findings from this study can inform future criminological research on influencer fraud and contribute to the development of measures to counter the fraudulent, unfair, and deceptive use and sale of engagement and quality metrics.