Biophilic Design Dimensions and Occupant Wellbeing in Built Environments: A Systematic Review and Triaxial Framework for Evidence-Based Architectural Practice

Biophilic design, understood as the deliberate incorporation of natural elements, processes and spatial conditions into the built environment, has attracted growing empirical attention as a strategy for improving occupant health, psychological restoration and cognitive performance. However, the evidence base remains fragmented across building typologies and disciplines, which hinders consistent application in practice. Drawing on 40 publications published between 1975 and 2026 across environmental psychology, neuroscience, evidence-based healthcare design and architectural theory, this article synthesises evidence on the relationships between specific biophilic design parameters and measured occupant wellbeing outcomes. Findings are organised across three analytically distinct dimensions: the sensory-perceptual dimension, encompassing natural light, visual connection to nature, fractal patterning and acoustic quality; the spatial-configurational dimension, encompassing prospect and refuge conditions, spatial hierarchy and biomorphic geometry; and the material-symbolic dimension, encompassing natural materials, water elements and living systems. Across all three dimensions, biophilic design parameters show consistent, measurable improvements in stress reduction, attentional restoration, perceived comfort and self-reported wellbeing, with outcome magnitudes varying by building typology and parameter intensity. Each parameter–typology intersection is appraised against a four-level scale defined a priori. The appraisal shows that the consistency of effect direction is not matched by uniform depth of typology-specific verification: the sensory-perceptual axis was manipulated in 78 per cent of the empirical studies retrieved, and the spatial-configurational axis in 17 per cent. Building on this synthesis, the article proposes the Triaxial Interior Biophilic Framework (TIBF), a structured decision-support instrument that maps ten evidence-based biophilic parameters against wellbeing outcomes across five building typologies: healthcare, workplace, education, residential and civic.