Developing an outcomes framework for greenspace programmes supporting individuals experiencing problem substance use: a scoping review and analytical synthesis

Background Greenspace programmes are known to support health and wellbeing, yet limited research exists on their impact for individuals experiencing problem substance use. Early findings are promising, but systematic exploration of appropriate outcome measures and evaluation methods remains sparse. This paper addresses that gap by developing an outcomes framework tailored to this population. Methods A mixed methods approach was used. A review of 311 papers evaluating greenspace interventions identified and grouped outcome measures into heuristic categories–based on overarching evaluative focus such as mood, general health or nature connection. In parallel, 33 interviews were conducted with programme participants, staff, and professionals in policy, commissioning, and referral roles. Findings from both sources were synthesized to generate an outcomes framework relevant to greenspace programmes supporting problem substance use. Results Evaluation methods in the literature include self-report scales, physiological measures, qualitative approaches, and observational or experimental designs. Commonly explored outcomes include: nature's impact on mood, affect, and attention; reductions in stress, anxiety, and depression; shifts in self-concept and identity; and enhanced social connection. Interview data echoed these themes, with participants describing improved health and wellbeing through multiple pathways. The resulting outcomes framework identifies 29 outcomes across three domains: nature-based, individual, and social. Conclusions This paper addresses a key knowledge gap in evaluating greenspace programmes for individuals with problem substance use. The evidence-informed outcomes framework offers a valuable resource for practitioners, researchers, and policymakers seeking to assess and enhance the impact of such interventions.