A Study on the Traces of Majapahit Wooden Sacred Architectural Heritage outside Java within the Indonesian Spice Trade Route Network

Majapahit was a Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that exerted wide influence across the Indonesian archipelago, particularly along the historic spice trade routes. Its significance is documented in the Nagarakretagama (14th century), which records the kingdom's political and cultural reach. Although most wooden architecture has disappeared due to material decay, its existence can be inferred from temple reliefs and surviving stone pedestal foundations (umpak). Traces of Majapahit wooden architectural traditions persist in post-Majapahit architecture across Java and regions along the spice routes. This study aims to identify the continuity of Majapahit wooden architectural heritage outside Java through historical, literature-based, field, and comparative analyses, supported by typo-morphological and architectural transformation approaches. The findings indicate a persistent typology of centrally oriented pyramidal roof structures with tiered compositions, supported by either four main posts (saka guru) or a single central post. This form is predominantly found in sacred architecture, including historic mosques and Balinese Meru shrines, indicating continuity of pre-Islamic architectural principles. In contrast, domestic architecture exhibits greater variation shaped by local cultural and environmental contexts.