The Formation of the Doctrinal Foundations of the Foreign Policy of Central Asian Countries, 1991–2025

The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the formation and evolution of the doctrinal foundations of the foreign policies of the Central Asian countries (CA) from 1991 to 2025. The purpose of the study is to identify the common preconditions and national specificities of the foreign policy models of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, as well as the nature of their balancing among the leading centres of power. Based on a comparative analysis of foreign policy concepts, strategies, regulatory acts, and practices of interstate interaction, the study traces the impact of the collapse of the USSR on the international policies of the states of the region. It is established that their foreign policy doctrines were formed primarily in response to an asymmetric geopolitical environment, limited domestic resources, and the need to preserve relations with Russia while simultaneously expanding cooperation with China, the United States, the European Union, and other partners. It is substantiated that multi-vectorism became the principal mechanism of foreign policy adaptation for the Central Asian countries, although it assumed different national forms. Kazakhstan developed a model of institutionalised multi-vectorism by combining strategic relations with Russia, China, and the West. Uzbekistan developed a sovereignty-oriented pragmatism, non-alignment, and active economic diplomacy. Kyrgyzstan pursues a policy of compelled balancing, shaped by economic vulnerability and dependence on external support. Tajikistan adheres to an “open-door” policy constrained by its security and migration dependence on Russia. Turkmenistan institutionalised permanent neutrality as an instrument of distancing, energy manoeuvring, and the preservation of domestic political stability. Particular attention is paid to the impact of Russia’s full-scale war against Ukraine since 2022. It is determined that the war did not lead to a radical rupture between the states of the region and Moscow; however, it intensified their caution regarding sanctions, encouraged the diversification of transport, economic, and diplomatic ties, and strengthened their efforts to avoid identification with Russian policy. The article concludes that Central Asia is gradually expanding its strategic autonomy and emphasises the importance of this process for Ukraine in the context of assessing the limits of Russian influence and the prospects for pragmatic cooperation with the states of the region.