The Heterogeneity of Executive Function in Individuals With Histories of Childhood Maltreatment: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Previous studies suggest that childhood maltreatment is associated with poorer executive function (EF), but the magnitude of these EF differences varies considerably across studies. Understanding the sources of this heterogeneity remains a critical yet unresolved issue. This study conducted a three-level meta analysis, focusing on both clinical and nonclinical populations, to quantify the magnitude of EF differences and systematically investigate the heterogeneity in standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g ) between the maltreated and nonmaltreated groups. A total of 41 independent studies comprising 137 effect sizes and 6,392 participants were included. The maltreated group showed significantly poorer overall EF performance than the nonmaltreated group ( g = −0.402, 95% CI [−0.574, −0.230], p < .001). This heterogeneity was partially explained by significant moderation effects of maltreatment measure, EF measure type, and sample source. These findings provide quantitative evidence of EF deficits associated with childhood maltreatment, underscore the importance of sample characteristics and assessment approaches in interpreting results, and inform evidence-based prevention and stratified intervention.