Good agricultural practices and technical efficiency in spatially differentiated rice farming systems in Indonesia

Spatial differences can shape both technical efficiency and the implementation of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in rice farming. This study compares technical efficiency and GAP implementation across urban, peri-urban, and rural rice farming systems and examines whether the relationship between GAP implementation and benchmark-level technical efficiency differs across these settings. Data from rice farmers in Kebumen and Pekalongan Regencies were analyzed using Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA), Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney tests, and binary logistic regression with spatial interaction terms. Urban farming systems recorded higher technical efficiency than rural systems and marginally higher efficiency than peri-urban systems, providing partial evidence of spatial differences in technical efficiency. GAP implementation also varied significantly across farming systems, with the highest level found in urban areas. Higher GAP implementation was positively associated with the likelihood of achieving benchmark-level technical efficiency, although the strength of this relationship differed across farming systems. Education was positively associated with benchmark-level technical efficiency in urban areas, while participation in agricultural extension and training was positively associated with benchmark-level technical efficiency in the pooled model and in urban farming systems. These findings highlight the importance of considering differences across farming systems when developing strategies to strengthen GAP implementation and improve technical efficiency in rice farming.