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Four studies examined the consequences of American Indian mascots and other prevalent representations of American Indians on aspects of the self-concept for American Indian students. When exposed to Chief Wahoo, Chief Illinwek, Pocahontas, or other common American Indian images, American Indian students generated positive associations (Study 1, high school) but reported depressed state self-esteem (Study 2, high school), and community worth (Study 3, high school), and fewer achieve-ment-related possible selves (Study 4, college). We suggest that American Indian mascots are harmful because they remind American Indians of the limited ways others see them and, in this way, constrain how they can see themselves. The tradition of the Chief Illiniwek is a link to our great past, a tangible symbol of an intangible spirit, filled with the qualities to which a person of any back-ground can aspire: goodness, strength, bravery, truthful-ness, courage, and dignity.—Honor the Chief Society (2006) There is a doubleness about these Indian names sport team mascot names, remarking the existence of Native Americans while relegating them to the past, appearing to bestow honor on them while cloaking the destructive deeds of Euro-American society.—Richard Grounds (2001, p. 304) Are American Indian mascots a positive way to honor and include American Indians or a harmful and negative stereotyping of American Indians? These opposing views form the basis of a heated national debate regarding the use of American Indian mascots in high schools, universities, and professional sports
Fryberg et al. (Fri,) studied this question.