Urban Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): A systematic review of governance, management and human impact

The hundred largest Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are located in remote offshore areas even though human populations are increasingly concentrated in urban coastal regions. Safeguarding coastal marine ecosystems in urban settings, where human populations are densely concentrated, presents challenges due to the need to balance the spatial demands of human activities with the preservation of the natural environment. This article focuses on MPAs located in urban contexts. We conducted a systematic literature review to (1) identify research focused on “urban” MPAs, (2) assess methodologies used to evaluate urban MPA governance and management, and (3) discuss the implications of integrating urban dynamics, management practices, and ecological considerations. Our findings reveal that 1) a clear definition of what constitutes an "urban" MPA remains elusive, while human disturbances are frequently acknowledged. This review therefore includes articles that address the human impact on the coastal environment, but also studies that do not explicitly address MPAs within an urban context. 2) Most studies emphasise the positive effects of management measures or the negative impact of human activities on marine ecosystems. 3) Our review underscores the diversity of approaches employed to evaluate MPA management and governance, highlighting that the concept of effectiveness can encompass social, cultural, and environmental dimensions. We suggest that future studies pay greater attention to the context and scale of MPA governance and management, to identify specific needs for improving MPA effectiveness in urban contexts. • Several urbanisation-related factors are linked to a marine protected area (MPA). • We identify knowledge gaps in the literature on a clear definition of “urban” MPA. • In this review, the impact of human activities on marine life is the most studied aspect. • The methods employed to analyse governance and management frameworks vary widely. • Balancing protection and human activities is a promising area for future research.