Valuation challenges of equity in early-stage ventures

Early-stage ventures present a fundamental challenge for valuation due to the lack of stable cash flows, historical performance data, and reliable market benchmarks. As a result, investors rely on a diverse range of valuation approaches that combine financial modelling, heuristic judgment, and information signals. This study provides a method-focused systematic literature review of valuation approaches used for early-stage ventures. Following established systematic review procedures, we analyzed 75 peer-reviewed studies published between 1991 and 2025 across entrepreneurship, finance, and management journals. The review identifies and synthesizes the methodological approaches used to value entrepreneurial ventures. This includes financial valuation models, practitioner-oriented heuristics, signaling-based assessments, and emerging platform-based valuation mechanisms. The findings confirm that early-stage valuation is rarely determined by a single method. Instead, investors apply combinations of financial techniques, credibility signals, and governance mechanisms such as staged-financing and convertible instruments to manage uncertainty. To enhance methodological transparency in the synthesis process, the review has also demonstrated how AI-assisted semantic analysis can support the classification and integration of heterogeneous valuation methods within systematic literature reviews. We also derive insights from semi-structured interviews with venture capital and entrepreneurial ecosystem practitioners used to reflect on how valuation approaches are implemented in practice. The study contributes to the entrepreneurial finance literature by clarifying how early-stage venture valuation is operationalized across research contexts. We also propose a conceptual framework of valuation mechanisms, and directions for future research on emerging valuation practices in entrepreneurial ecosystems.