Numerous background ray particles, such as neutrinos, exist ubiquitously in space. These particles inevitably give rise to a gravitational effect between any two objects. Through rigorous mathematical derivation, the gravitational equation for a spherical celestial body is found to be exactly Newton's law of gravitation. However, the gravitational constant G is a function of mass—a variable—causing the gravitational equation for galaxies where substantial matter has accumulated to be fundamentally different. Without invoking dark matter, this force can naturally explain the flat and rising morphologies of galactic rotation curves. It leads to the inevitable conclusion that galactic disks must exhibit a warped morphology, and clarifies the formation mechanisms of spiral arms and bulges in spiral galaxies. It shows that stellar velocity dispersion arises without requiring galaxy mergers, and outlines the principles and processes governing the evolution from Sc to Sb, Sa, and subsequently to S0 or elliptical galaxies, as well as the reason why, for a disk galaxy, the total mass inferred from tracers in the galactic halo is significantly greater than the total mass inferred from the dynamics of its galactic disk. By comprehensively comparing this force with observational data across multiple domains of galactic dynamics, this paper finds that it systematically conforms to observational results, eliminating the need to invoke dark matter, while remaining compatible with Newtonian gravity.
Shunlin Hu (Sat,) studied this question.