The long persistence: fossil fuels consumption, structural constraints and energy transition in Spanish industry, 1960–2021

Abstract Industrial energy consumption in Spain increased significantly since 1960, driven by fossil fuels, with dependence on them barely decreasing until the 2008 crisis. This paper analyzes whether the phase-out of fossil fuels in Spanish industry was delayed by structural constraints inherent in the sector. It presents novel annual series of primary and final energy use, useful work and energy intensity across twelve sectors over 1960–2021. Data from five statistics were compiled, corrected, and harmonized. Results indicate that three sectors—building materials, steelmaking, and chemicals—accounted for more than half of primary consumption throughout the period. The carbonization of electricity generation in the first period and high thermal requirements and size of these sectors, particularly during the construction boom, hindered electrification and reductions in energy intensity. As in other Southern European industries, the weight of construction may have slowed the transition to a zero-emissions industry in the early twenty-first century.