Abstract Robotic intelligence has advanced greatly in the past decade. Nevertheless, integrating embodied intelligent and responsive behavior into soft robotic systems remains challenging because it typically requires bulky hardware for environmental feedback and decision-making. While soft materials like poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) offer potential for simplified material-based actuation through temperature-responsive motion, their slow response and high energy demands limit their use in closed-loop control systems. To overcome this limitation, we present soft PNIPAM-based actuators with integrated hydrogel-based Joule heating, enabling localized actuation without significantly altering the temperature within 1 cm of the actuator. The potential of the material is demonstrated by processing it into a soft gripper that can lift up to three-fold its own weight with integrated capability to adjust its actuation in response to the gripped object. This design is well-suited for energy-efficient manipulation and sorting of delicate items, such as those found in automated packaging systems.
Georgopoulou et al. (Sat,) studied this question.