Drawing on the person–process–place (PPP) framework and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), this study investigates how various personal, social, and environmental factors combine to shape international students' sense of place in Chengdu, China. The PPP framework conceptualizes Person (e.g., psychological capital), Process (e.g., cultural adaptation, academic adaptation and city image perception), and Place (e.g., interpersonal interaction and social support) as interacting dimensions that influence place attachment and emotional integration. Using survey data from 212 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) international students, this study identifies three distinct adaptation types: (1) the subject-perception type, where students rely on internal resources to develop belonging; (2) the internal and external consideration type, which integrates internal adaptation with social and institutional ties; and (3) the environment dominance type, where strong external support compensates for weak self-efficacy and social connections. On the basis of these findings, we propose differentiated strategies to enhance the integration of international students: universities should offer psychological capital-building programs (e.g., resilience workshops), strengthen host–peer social interaction channels, and tailor support systems according to student profiles. These measures can more effectively enhance sense of place and support the sustainable development of transnational higher education.
Hu et al. (Wed,) studied this question.