Abstract Tsunamis are among the most destructive natural phenomena instead of disasters, particularly for coastal communities that have low levels of socio-economic resilience. The research this article is based on critically evaluate and synthesize the socio-economic indicators used in tsunami vulnerability assessments through a systematic review approach. The findings indicate that vulnerability indicators can be classified into four main domains: exposure, early warning capacity, evacuation and emergency response capacity, and recovery capacity. However, there is inconsistency in the selection of indicators, a lack of adaptation to local contexts, and an excessive reliance on physical factors rather than social dimensions. This article contributes to the development of a conceptual framework that integrates socio-economic indicators into tsunami vulnerability modelling, particularly for developing countries that are underrepresented in the global literature. The results provide an important scientific basis to support the development of vulnerability models that are more local, community-based, and responsive to varying levels of social inequality. The implications of this research are in line with the aspirations of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities and SDG 13: Climate Change Action, through recommendations for improvements to disaster response plans and community-based risk mapping. The research also suggests that future research should emphasize the integration of socio-economic indicators with geospatial technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) approaches to produce dynamic, adaptive, and community-oriented tsunami risk mapping.
Effendi et al. (Fri,) studied this question.