Relevant Issues in the Pathology and Pathobiology of Pulmonary Hypertension

Knowledge of the pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension continues to accelerate. However, fundamental gaps remain in our understanding of the underlying pathological changes in pulmonary arteries and veins in the different forms of this syndrome. Although pulmonary hypertension primarily affects the arteries, venous disease is increasingly recognized as an important entity. Moreover, prognosis in pulmonary hypertension is determined largely by the status of the right ventricle, rather than the levels of pulmonary artery pressures. It is increasingly clear that while vasospasm plays a role, pulmonary hypertension is an obstructive lung panvasculopathy. Disordered metabolism and mitochondrial structure, inflammation, and dysregulation of growth factors lead to a proliferative, apoptosis-resistant state. These abnormalities may be acquired, genetically mediated as a result of mutations in bone morphogenetic protein receptor (BMPR)2 or activin-like kinase (Alk)-1 or epigenetically-inherited (as a result of epigenetic silencing of genes such as superoxide dismutase 2). There is a pressing need to better understand how the pathobiology leads to severe disease in some patients versus mild pulmonary hypertension in others. Recent recognition of a potential role of acquired abnormalities of mitochondrial metabolism in the right ventricular myocytes and pulmonary vascular cells suggests new therapeutic approaches, diagnostic modalities, and biomarkers. Finally, dissection of role of pulmonary inflammation in the initiation and promotion of pulmonary hypertension has revealed a complex yet fascinating interplay with pulmonary vascular remodeling, promising to lead to novel therapeutics and diagnostics. Emerging concepts are also relevant to the pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension, including a role for bone marrow and circulating progenitor cells and microRNAs. Continued interest in the interface of the genetic basis of pulmonary hypertension and cellular and molecular pathogenetic links should expand further our understanding of the disease.