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for the Indus Delta in 2019 and 2024, respectively. Canopy density analysis from 1988 to 2024 categorized mangroves based on Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values into sparse, moderate, and thick-density classes. NDVI thresholds (sparse: 0.1-0.3; moderate: 0.3-0.5; thick: >0.5) were used to assess canopy density. Results indicated densification of mangrove forests and a shift from sparse to dense vegetation, reflecting ecological recovery. Classification accuracy exceeded 96 % with high kappa values (>0.93). Due to field access limitations, accuracy assessments were conducted using visual validation via high-resolution Google Earth imagery. Fragmentation and transition analyses further revealed dynamic patterns and resilience of these ecosystems under environmental stressors. Comparative analysis of Landsat and Sentinel-2 data revealed high classification accuracy, with overall accuracies exceeding 96 % and kappa values above 0.93. The findings also provide actionable insights for national and provincial forest departments, supporting policy recommendations aimed at enhancing mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to landform changes and climate variability.
Xu et al. (Wed,) studied this question.