Interdependent optimization strategies for material, module, and system designs in thermoelectric devices

Thermoelectric devices, which enable the direct conversion between thermal and electrical energy, have emerged as promising solutions for waste heat recovery and thermal management across various fields. Current studies primarily focus on performance improvements at a single level, such as developing advanced materials, new module configurations, or efficient heat-exchange structures. Thermoelectric devices for broader applications require consideration across these levels. This review discusses issues related to performance degradation as thermoelectrics progresses from the material to the device level and examines current optimization strategies in material, module, and system designs. We propose a set of optimization strategies across different levels, emphasizing their interdependence to achieve efficient and practical thermoelectric devices.