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Mycotoxins are toxic and impair the immunological effect of other vaccines upon exposure. To mitigate the adverse effects of mycotoxins, detection, and vaccine prevention are crucial. The acquisition of monoclonal antibodies and the production of specific antibodies are key in detection and vaccine prevention, both of which require robust antigen immunological effect. Summarizing the toxic characteristics of mycotoxins reveals that they primarily exert their toxicity through mechanisms such as oxidative stress and apoptosis, resulting in poor and unstable immune responses. As essential adjuvants for enhancing antigen-specific immune responses, adjuvants hold significant potential for improving the immunogenicity of low-immunogenic, highly immunotoxic mycotoxins. In this review, we categorize adjuvants into immunomodulatory, carrier-based, and composite types, introducing their mechanisms and latest advancements, which demonstrate the evolution of adjuvant functions from uncontrolled single immune activation to controllable targeted immune modulation. Notably, we innovatively integrate mycotoxin toxicity mechanisms with adjuvant immune enhancement mechanisms, emphasizing the applications of these adjuvant platforms in alleviating mycotoxin toxicity while exerting immune-enhancing effects. Concurrently, we discuss regulatory aspects, challenges, and future prospects for immunostimulatory adjuvants. To provide systematic literature analysis for the rational application of immune adjuvants in mycotoxin immune enhancement and the design and development of novel immune adjuvants.
Ren et al. (Thu,) studied this question.