Confucius’ Belief in Natural Deities and Sacrifice

The diversity of religious traditions and the increasing prevalence of religious pluralism, along with critical reflections on scientism and the relationship between philosophy and religion, have stimulated global scholarly discussions on Confucianism—its identity as a tradition of learning, its religious dimensions, and its relation to religion in general. These discussions have been further enriched by the discovery of early Confucian texts and renewed examination of existing Confucian classics. As the founder and chief architect of Confucianism, and as both a perceiver and teacher of its truths, Confucius demonstrated a distinct religious consciousness in his teachings and practices. This is reflected in his beliefs concerning spirits and deities, his views on sacrifice, and his ritual awareness—not only through his faith in Heaven and the Mandate of Heaven and his reverence for ancestral spirits, but also in his belief in natural deities. However, Confucius’s conception of natural deities and his associated sacrificial views remain relatively underexplored. This paper examines how Confucius distinguished between the physical and the divine aspects of nature, recognized the connection between the order (or disorder) of these two realms and political governance, maintained faith in natural deities, and advocated for corresponding ritual practices. By systematically reconstructing Confucius’s beliefs regarding natural deities, this study aims to fill a significant gap in current research.