Levels Issues in Theory Development, Data Collection, and Analysis

Deplt » past entreaties to organizational theorists and reseontchars to address levels issues more carefully, levels issues continue to arouse confusion and controversy within e organizational literature. We highlight three alternative assumptions that underlie the specifica-tion of levels of theory throujᵒut mganizational behavior: (a) homo-geneity within higher level units, (b) independence from higher Uvel tinits. and (c) heterogeneity within higher level ludts. These assump-tions influence the nature of theoretical constructs and propositions and should, ideally, also influence data collection, analysis, and in-terpretation. Greater attention to levels issues will strengthen orga-nizational theory development and research. Consider a levels-of-analysis issue arising in contemporary Ameri-can politics: How should electoral college votes be allocated In the pres-idential election? Currently, electoral college votes are allocated at the state level in all but two states (Maine and Nebraska). Thus, in 48 states,