The Unbreakable Glass Ceiling: Gender Happiness Gap Among University Teachers—Quasi‐Experimental Evidence From China

In this study, we explore the 1999 university entrance examination expansion reform in China as a quasi‐natural experiment to evaluate its influence on the gender gap of happiness among Chinese university teachers. Utilizing a survey of 3789 university teachers across 302 universities, a difference‐in‐differences model has been conducted to analyze the effect of this reform. The findings reveal that while the expansion increased overall happiness and reduced research stress among university teachers, it concurrently exacerbated the happiness disparity between male and female teachers. Specifically, the happiness gains for female teachers were markedly lower compared with their male counterparts. Further analysis through channel tests suggests that this gap predominantly arises from the limited career development opportunities available to female university teachers, thereby perpetuating a gender gap in happiness. Despite higher educational levels, female teachers encounter a persistent “unbreakable glass ceiling” in their professional progression. This study underscores the nuanced effects of educational policy reforms on gender dynamics within academia and emphasizes the necessity of addressing these disparities in order to foster a more equitable academic environment.