A phylogenomic and metagenomic meta-analysis of bacterial diversity in the phyllosphere lifts a veil on Hyphomicrobiales dark matter

The phyllosphere, or above-ground part of plants, hosts diverse bacterial communities that play critical ecological roles and provide beneficial functions for the plant. Yet, the diversity of major plant-associated bacteria groups like Hyphomicrobiales (Alphaproteobacteria) remain largely uncharacterized in the phyllosphere, due to limitations of 16S rRNA metabarcoding and biases in reference databases toward model taxa and environments. Using a meta-analysis combining metabarcoding, metagenomics and phylogenomics, we explored the worldwide diversity of leaf-associated Hyphomicrobiales. We confirmed Methylobacterium was ubiquitous in the phyllosphere and revealed the dominance of two under-characterized Hyphomicrobiales taxa: Lichenibacterium , a recently described genus of lichen-associated bacteria previously identified as 1174-901-12 in taxonomic databases, and RH-AL1, an undescribed genus of bacteria related to Beijerinckiaceae, previously isolated from coal slag. Despite their abundance in the phyllosphere, Lichenibacterium and RH_AL1 could not be properly detected by classical 16S rRNA gene barcoding, underlining biases in reference databases and a lack of taxonomic resolution for this marker gene. As for Methylobacterium , a significant proportion of Lichenibacterium and RH-AL1 were also detected in association with lichens and in environments with harsh conditions like exposed surfaces, air and snow, suggesting airborne or waterborne dispersal and high resilience in harsh environments. Overall our study stresses the need to move toward metagenomics and culturomics to increase the representativeness of leaf-associated bacterial taxa in reference databases, and to improve our understanding of the evolutionary and functional mechanisms underpinning bacteria adaptations to living on plants.