With the rapid rise of AI chatbots, concerns about AI chatbot dependence are increasing. Prior research has focused primarily on university students, leaving limited understanding of its broader psychological and behavioral implications. This study examined associations between AI chatbot dependence, internet and smartphone dependence, and mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, and well-being) in a general adult sample (N = 1,146). Usage purposes were also examined as a moderator. AI chatbot dependence was moderately correlated with internet and smartphone dependence, but these associations were weaker than the internet–smartphone link. Positive associations were found between AI chatbot dependence and depression or anxiety, but not with mental well-being. Notably, usage purpose moderated the relationship between chatbot dependence and well-being: individuals using chatbots primarily for information retrieval reported higher well-being. While AI chatbot dependence is positively linked to traditional technology dependence, its association with mental health appears weaker, suggesting a different psychological profile.
Zhang et al. (2025) studied this question.