Biophilia as a temperament trait, not a universal. Testing the Biophilia Reactivity Hypothesis in a population children in the United States and Congo

Abstract The Biophilia Hypothesis proposes that biophilia is a universal human instinct, yet empirical support remains limited. This study tests the Biophilia Reactivity Hypothesis, which reframes biophilia as a temperament trait—an early-emerging, biologically influenced, and individually variable attraction to biodiversity. In the first cross-cultural study of biophilia in children, we tested 295 participants aged 3–13 from the United States and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Children completed two instruments: a biophobia scale adapted from the Revised Fear Survey Schedule and a novel, image-based biophilia preference task targeting three domains—Backyard Biophilia, Wildlife Tolerance, and Biophilic Travel. Results supported individual variability and early emergence, with normally distributed scores and no evidence of ceiling or floor effects. U.S. children exhibited significantly higher biophilia in the Wildlife Tolerance and Biophilic Travel domains compared to Congolese peers, while biophobia showed weaker and more variable cultural differences. Contrary to assumptions of universality, biophilia varied across individuals and cultures and was not inversely correlated with fear. These findings support a temperament-based model of biophilia and underscore the need for domain-specific, culturally sensitive measurement approaches. This reframing has implications for developmental psychology, conservation behavior, and the design of effective, personalized nature-based interventions and policies.