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This is a Dynamic systems approach study.

Dynamic System Model for Optimizing Clean Water Distribution in Balikpapan City

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Analysis identifies clean water distribution issues in Balikpapan, highlighting challenges of NRW and population growth.

Clean water consumption decreased to 23.15 million m³ by 2035, indicating worsening distribution efficiency.
Non-revenue water reached 25.85%, highlighting significant losses in the distribution system.
A dynamic system model exposed the effectiveness of varying policy scenarios in optimizing clean water delivery.
Scenario 3, with pipeline repairs and customer increase, reduced leakage rates and improved coverage significantly.

Ningsih et al. (2025) studied this question.

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