Advancing Sustainable Hydrogen Production: Cost, Environmental, and Technological Innovations in Biomass, Pyrolysis, and SMR

Hydrogen production methods differ significantly in their environmental impact and cost-benefit trade-offs, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable and cost-effective approaches to hydrogen production. In this paper, we focus on studying the optimal production pathway which can balance environmental friendliness, economic feasibility, and long-term sustainability. Currently, approximately 90% of global hydrogen production relies on steam methane reforming (SMR). While methane, the primary component of natural gas, serves as the key feedstock, natural gas also contains 0–20% methane and, occasionally, other hydrocarbons. As a fossil fuel, natural gas is a finite resource, and its eventual depletion is inevitable, even under the most optimistic industry forecasts. The limitations of this production model are becoming increasingly apparent, particularly in the context of volatile natural gas prices, such as the historic price surge in 2008. Although prices have stabilized in recent years due to a combination of global economic slowdowns and the rise of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) in the United States, the environmental consequences of fracking—especially its localized ecological impacts—remain significant.