A topological classification of open-forest lawn spatial morphologies in planting design: A case study of parks in Hangzhou and Shanghai, China

Open-forest lawns – comprising sparse tree canopies and herbaceous ground layers – play vital ecological, esthetic, and social roles in urban green spaces, yet lack a systematic spatial typology to inform design and application. This study employs a case study approach to develop a spatial typology for open-forest lawn landscapes grounded in topological principles. It identifies three spatial archetypes – node-based, pathway-driven, and island-based – and selects 12 representative sites from urban parks in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, and Shanghai, China, for analysis. The study examines the spatial characteristics of each archetype, along with their corresponding design logic and thematic intentions. The results show that node-based spaces create a sense of ceremony through enclosed interfaces; pathway-driven spaces encourage dynamic exploration through linear infiltration; and island-based spaces rely on discrete clusters to foster diverse forms of interaction. Moreover, these three spatial forms can be layered to establish a coordinated relationship spanning design themes, spatial sequences, and planting configurations. From both theoretical and practical perspectives, the proposed typological framework offers a spatially oriented reference and guidance for open-forest lawn design.