Expanding data usage in systems: an empirical study of combined model-based and data-driven development in complex intelligent systems (CoIS)

AI is becoming an important part of complex products and systems (CoPS), transforming them into complex intelligent systems (CoIS), on which our society depends. Traditionally, system development relied on model-based approaches, and the emerging data-driven approaches offer new possibilities. This paper explores the intertwining of model-based and data-driven approaches in emerging CoIS through a comparative case study of their role in cloud-based automotive systems, which are part of the transportation system. The findings show that data-driven approaches not only complement model-based approaches but also play a pivotal role in the evolution of CoIS.