Diversity and Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Isolated from the Oral Cavity of Captive Snakes

Venomous snake bites are a global public health issue, causing between 81,000 and 138,000 annual deaths and 400,000 permanent disabilities. This study investigated the oral bacterial diversity and antibiotic resistance profiles in captive Viperidae snakes. Oral swabs from 48 specimens across four species (Porthidium lansbergii, Bothriechis nigroviridis, Cerrophidion sasai, and Bothrops asper) were analyzed using culture-dependent methods. Bacterial isolation and identification via the VITEK 2 automated system revealed 41 strains from 12 genera, predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, including Morganella morganii (11 isolates) and Providencia rettgeri (10 isolates). Antibiotic susceptibility testing demonstrated significant resistance patterns, with 100% resistance to cephalothin and cefazolin in M. morganii, and emerging extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) production in Enterobacter cloacae and Sphingomonas paucimobilis. Comparative analysis showed P. lansbergii exhibited the highest bacterial diversity. These findings highlight the complex oral microbiota of venomous snakes and underscore the need for evidence-based antibiotic strategies in snakebite management, particularly given the global rise in antimicrobial resistance.