Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles: Mechanisms, Implications, and Future Perspectives for Human and Environmental Health

The widespread integration of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) into consumer products, biomedical applications, and industrial processes has raised significant concerns regarding their potential cytotoxic and genotoxic effects on human health and the environment. AgNPs exhibit unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area-to-volume ratio, antimicrobial activity, and catalytic efficiency, which drive their commercial and scientific utility. However, their increasing prevalence necessitates a rigorous assessment of their genotoxic potential, encompassing DNA damage, chromosomal aberrations, and epigenetic modifications. This review synthesizes current literature on AgNP-induced genetic toxicity, elucidating molecular mechanisms such as oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammatory responses. By integrating findings from in vitro and in vivo studies, we highlight the dose-dependent and size-specific effects of AgNPs across diverse biological systems. Additionally, we discuss critical factors influencing genotoxicity, including surface coatings, aggregation dynamics, and exposure pathways. The environmental persistence of AgNPs and their bioaccumulation in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems further underscore the need for comprehensive risk assessment frameworks. This review aims to bridge existing knowledge gaps by proposing standardized toxicity evaluation protocols, advancing mechanistic understanding, and advocating for sustainable nanomaterial design. Ultimately, our analysis informs regulatory policies, promotes safer AgNP applications, and encourages the development of mitigation strategies to minimize adverse health and ecological impacts.