A comprehensive review of graphene-based biosensors: Fabrication, applications, characterization and future perspectives—A review

Graphene is a 2D material that has emerged as a versatile and advanced material for biosensing technology due to its large surface area, high conductivity, and biocompatibility. These properties make it well-suited for label-free detection of biomarkers with high sensitivity and accuracy, which is crucial for early diagnosis of various diseases, environmental monitoring, and food safety. This review highlights recent progress in graphene-based biosensor technologies, emphasizing key fabrication methods such as mechanical exfoliation, liquid phase exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition, electrochemical exfoliation, and microwave-assisted exfoliation, which are highly effective and suitable for generating graphene at an industry level. Furthermore, the study highlights characterization techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, optical spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy, which ensure quality and functionality of the graphene in biosensing applications. While hurdles like enhancing conductivity and achieving large-scale production remain, graphene-based biosensors offer a transformative approach to delivering precise and consistent results across various industries, paving the way for innovative solutions in diagnostics and monitoring systems.