Infection rate of Borrelia burgdorferi genospecies in human-biting Ixodes ricinus ticks: models for surveillance based on the French citizen science programme CiTIQUE

In Europe, Lyme borreliosis is the most common vector–borne human disease, caused mainly by Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii , two species of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) complex transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus . Accurately assessing the spatial risk of human exposure to these pathogens is essential for efficient public health surveillance. However conventional mon-itoring often struggles to produce geographically explicit, large scale data that capture the heterogeneity of human exposure and its drivers. Focusing on continental France, we leveraged data from the French CiTIQUE citizen science pro-gramme to analyse spatial variation of Bbsl infection in georeferenced human–biting I. ricinus ticks and to model the relationship between Bbsl distribution and environmental, ecological, and an-thropogenic factors. From 2017–2019, 1,891 ticks were analysed, of which 15% tested positive for Bbsl. The most prevalent genospecies were B. afzelii (7.2%) and B. garinii (4.2%). Infection rates varied spatially, with distinct distribution patterns across pathogen groups. Tick habitat suitability was the most consistent predictor for overall Bbsl infection probability, genospecies specific models revealed the importance of their respective reservoir hosts: B. afzelii occurrence was positively associated with rodent species richness, whereas B. garinii was associated with Turdidae species and showed po-tential traces of a dilution effect due to rodents. Our findings demonstrate the value of citizen science for complementing formal surveillance and provide the first geographically explicit, large-scale insights into Bbsl eco–epidemiology in France. This scalable approach offers an adaptable framework for monitoring vector–borne disease risk and guiding public health strategies.