From crowding perception to destination loyalty. assessing the moderating role of travel satisfaction in European cities

The post COVID-19 pandemic surge in tourism has created significant overcrowding challenges in major cities. This study examines the relationships between crowding perception, destination attractiveness, destination satisfaction, and destination loyalty, with a focus on the moderating role of travel satisfaction. Data were collected from 1,859 tourists in London, Paris, and Rome using Computer-Assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI). A structural equation modelling approach (PLS-SEM) was employed to analyze these relationships, incorporating a multigroup analysis to compare tourists based on their transport modes and mobility limitations. The relationships were analyzed through PLS-SEM, using a multigroup analysis to compare tourists based on their transport modes and mobility limitations. The results show that travel satisfaction moderates the effects of crowding on destination attractiveness and satisfaction, although the extent of this varies across cities and transport modes. In Rome, crowding increases satisfaction, while in London and Paris it has a negative effect. Differences are also found between tourists using micromobility, public transport, and walking. The findings highlight the need for tailored strategies to improve urban tourism experiences and address overcrowding, including consideration of tourists' mobility preferences. This study advances the theory by emphasising the moderating role of travel satisfaction.