Balancing the Essentiality and Genotoxicity of Copper: A Review

Copper is an indispensable trace element necessary for the survival and proper functioning of nearly all living organisms, including humans. It plays a pivotal role in key physiological and biochemical processes, including energy production, iron metabolism, collagen synthesis, and neurotransmitter production. The distribution of copper and its transport proteins in the brain is crucial for maintaining cellular functions. However, disturbances in copper homeostasis can lead to severe neurological disorders and various health complications. This review delves into copper's dual role as both an essential nutrient and a toxic agent. Excess copper accumulation can induce oxidative stress, DNA damage, and genotoxicity, which are linked to its potential in causing chronic diseases. Special attention is given to copper nanoparticles and copper-based anticancer drugs, exploring their promising therapeutic applications alongside their toxicological profiles. We also provide insights into the mechanisms underlying copper-induced genotoxicity and discuss regulatory challenges in copper metabolism. This comprehensive review offers a critical assessment of copper's multifaceted role, addressing its benefits, risks, and future research directions.