Unpacking The Impact Of Instructor Feedback On Academic Self-Efficacy And Student Performance: A Structural Model Across Disciplines And Genders

Understanding the role of instructor feedback in higher education has become increasingly critical, especially in the wake of widespread remote and hybrid learning triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study examines the structural relationship between instructor feedback, academic self-efficacy, and perceived student performance, while assessing the moderating effects of gender and academic program. Grounded in social cognitive theory and using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), data were collected from 418 foundation students, representing 67% of the full cohort at a Malaysian defence university, via a revised questionnaire. The results demonstrate that instructor feedback significantly predicts academic self-efficacy (β = 0.708, p < 0.001), which subsequently enhances student performance (β = 0.614, p < 0.001). Instructor feedback also exerts a direct influence on performance (β = 0.223, p < 0.001), confirming a partial mediation effect. Neither gender nor academic program moderated the feedback–self-efficacy pathway (p > 0.05). These findings underscore the consistent role of feedback in enhancing learner outcomes across demographics. This study contributes to the literature by confirming the universality of instructor feedback effectiveness across gender and academic programs in a digital learning context. Practical implications are offered for feedback-centric pedagogy in digitally mediated and hybrid higher education environments.