Comparative Neurobiology of Steroids and Stress: Implications for Memory in Humans and Animals: A Narrative Review

Background: Steroids and stress hormones are central regulators of cognitive processes, influencing memory formation, consolidation, and retrieval across both humans and animals. While acute stress responses may transiently enhance attention and recall, chronic activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis is strongly associated with impaired cognition, reduced memory flexibility, and greater susceptibility to psychiatric and neurological disorders. Understanding these mechanisms has important implications for clinical and veterinary medicine, where corticosteroid use and stress-related conditions remain highly relevant. Objective: This narrative review aims to provide a comparative perspective on the neurobiology of memory, the physiology of stress, and the role of steroid hormones in shaping cognitive outcomes, highlighting translational insights between human and veterinary contexts. Main Discussion Points: The review synthesizes evidence from 2018 to 2025, covering the neurobiological basis of memory systems, the mechanistic pathways of stress responses, and the modulatory roles of glucocorticoids. Comparative analysis demonstrates shared mechanisms across species, with differences in stress physiology underscoring the need for careful extrapolation. Animal studies are shown to be critical in understanding human memory disorders such as Cushing’s syndrome and post-traumatic stress disorder. Therapeutic strategies, including pharmacological agents, selective glucocorticoid receptor modulators, behavioral interventions, and environmental modifications, are discussed alongside existing limitations and knowledge gaps. Conclusion: Findings highlight the duality of steroids and stress in enhancing or impairing memory depending on context, while emphasizing the translational value of animal models. Integrative approaches combining neurobiology, pharmacology, and behavioral science are essential to advance therapeutic strategies and protect cognitive health under stress.