Marine biofouling and antifouling: a decade of systematic review on the environmental risks to coastal water systems

Biofouling, the accumulation of marine organisms on submerged surfaces, presents growing challenges for maritime operations and coastal community resilience. This systematic review (2014 to 2024) synthesises recent findings on antifouling strategies, their environmental impacts, and implications for water security. Despite the global ban on tributyltin, many copper-based and organic biocides remain in use, contributing to sediment pollution and potential contamination of coastal aquifers. Biofouling also reduces the efficiency of desalination and water infrastructure, increasing costs and straining freshwater access in vulnerable regions. Saltwater intrusion, intensified by sea-level rise and groundwater overuse, further threatens groundwater quality. While green antifouling technologies show promise, adoption is limited in resource-constrained areas. Using the PRISMA framework, this study synthesises global findings, emphasising the need for sustainable antifouling solutions that balance pollution control, ship efficiency, and water security. Future research should integrate biofouling management with coastal water protection to enhance community resilience.