A Unified Mechanism of +1 Ribosomal Frameshifting

Ribosomes decode three-nucleotide codons and move in one-codon increments to maintain the mRNA frame thereby accurately producing the encoded protein. In special cases, including viral genomes and regulatory cellular proteins, frameshifting occurs to expand the coding repertoire of an mRNA to make more than one protein. How these frameshifting events are induced and regulated is an active area of research. Here, we discuss recent progress in the understanding of +1 frameshifting (+1FS), during which the ribosome shifts by one mRNA nucleotide in the 3′ direction. Structural and biochemical studies yielded insights into +1FS induced by mRNA slippery sequences and tRNA stem-loop expansion or modifications. tRNAs with an additional anticodon nucleotide are explored as a biotechnology tool for expanding the genetic code, in an approach termed quadruplet decoding. We revisit the challenges of the quadruplet decoding model, discuss +1FS scenarios in bacteria and eukaryotes, and propose a unifying structural mechanism for +1FS.