Potential of temperate agroforestry systems to deliver ecosystem services: an evidence map

Agroforestry systems are promoted as multifunctional land-use strategies, yet evidence of their benefits, especially in temperate regions, remains fragmented. This umbrella review maps 42 meta-analyses to quantify the effects of agroforestry on environmental, climate, and productivity outcomes, with a focus on temperate pedo-climates. Our evidence map reveals a strong consensus on key regulating ecosystem services: a clear majority of assessments (over 65 %) reported significantly positive effects on soil carbon sequestration and multiple indicators of soil quality (154 results). In contrast, effects on provisioning services are more variable. However, the most reported metrics (e.g. single-crop yield) hardly represent the integrated provision of different food or non-food products on the same land, while more comprehensive indicators are rarely used (e.g. land equivalent ratio). Mapping outcomes to the CICES framework highlights several relevant knowledge gaps and a total absence of meta-analytical evidence for Cultural Ecosystem Services. Methodological quality was variable, with frequent shortcomings in reporting study selection and statistical analysis. We provide a list of 1500 primary literature references and a global map of geolocations highlighting the experiments available for temperate pedo-climates. This synthesis provides a robust evidence base for policymakers, pinpointing both established benefits and critical research gaps needed to fully leverage agroforestry in temperate regions.