Spectral Control of a Cavity-Based X-ray Free-Electron Laser via Active Mode Locking

Precise spectral control in the hard X-ray regime remains a long-standing challenge that limits applications in atomic-scale science and ultrafast spectroscopy. We present an actively mode-locked cavity-based X-ray free-electron laser that achieves deterministic spectral programmability with phase-locked pulse trains and comb-like spectra, by coherently modulating the electron-beam energy. Three-dimensional time-dependent simulations predict {700}{} total energy, {30}{} peak power, and frequency-comb spacing of {1.55}{} set by the modulation frequency. We further develop selective single-line amplification via undulator tapering and absolute frequency positioning through modulation-laser tuning with better than 2 × 10⁻⁵ relative precision. Importantly, stable mode-locked operation persists under >80% peak-to-peak cavity-reflectivity variations, substantially relaxing requirements on X-ray optics. These results establish active mode locking as a practical route to fully coherent, spectrally agile hard X-ray sources and enable new opportunities in time-resolved core-level spectroscopy, X-ray quantum optics, and precision metrology.