Assessment of the potability and carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of drinking water in rural areas of the Amhara region, Ethiopia

Drinking water quality has declined due to the increased pollution from industries, agricultural runoff, sewage, and domestic activities. This study evaluated the potability and carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk of drinking water in rural regions of the Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Water samples were collected from the drinking water sources of the dwellers namely developed spring, shallow well, and deep well in January 2022. The collected water samples were analyzed for physicochemical and biological qualities and trace and heavy metal contents. Chronic daily intake (CDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) indices were calculated to assess human health risks associated with heavy metal exposure. The groundwater pollution index (GPI) showed that 100% of water samples were very highly polluted (GPI >2.5). The HQ values for both children and adults were less than 1. All samples’ total coliform and fecal coliform counts surpassed the recommended limit of 0 cfu/100 mL. The water sources of the study sites were not deemed suitable for drinking as most of the water quality parameters did not meet the national and international drinking water quality standards. There should be immediate treatment of the contaminated water using chlorination, UV treatment, or filtration to save people from waterborne diseases and avoid environmental risks.