Perceived and induced affective responses to musical sounds: The influence of instrument family, pitch register, and individual differences

Local features of instrument family and pitch register can influence the affect a music listener perceives and feels. We investigate the effect of those features on perceived and induced affect in response to single tones (Exp 1) and chromatic scales (Exp 2) and explore the moderating effect of individual differences. In two online experiments, participants (N1 = 263; N2 = 152) rated their affective response on dimensional (valence, tension, energy) and discrete (anger, fear, sadness, happiness, tenderness) affect scales, and completed questionnaires to measure their pre-existing mood, personality traits (Big-Five and empathy), musical sophistication, and musical expertise. Polynomial mixed-effects analyses showed a mostly quadratic effect of register, although energy and sadness responded more linearly to changes in register. The quadratic aspect of pitch effects may explain previous discrepancies in results that considered pitch linearly. Comparing the different instrument families, (pitched) percussion was most distinctive as the most positively valenced, happy, and tender, and least fearful, sad, and angry. Affects that may be considered unpleasant were less strongly induced than perceived, which may extend the ‘sad music paradox’ to other unpleasant affects. Musical sophistication most frequently moderated the effects of the polynomial mixed-effects models, especially the effect of instrument family. The influence of individual differences calls for future studies to recruit a representative population sample, report on the variation that is present in their sample, and/or consider the moderating effect of individual differences in their subject of interest.